Characteristics of Learners Living in Poverty

As of 2018, 1 in 6 children under the age of 18 in the United States were living in poverty. That is equal to nearly 12 million children. In 2018 this resulted in a child poverty rate of 16%, versus 11% for adults 18-64 and 10% for adults over age 65 (Children's Defense Fund, 2020). While students and their families living at or below the poverty line undoubtedly face significant challenges in multiple areas of their lives; this blog will focus on their disadvantages and complex needs when it comes to these students becoming proficient readers and writers. A significant amount of research dedicated to investigating possible links between socioeconomic status and reading ability has already been undertaken (although there does remain a glaring need for additional research). With that being said, there is a clear theme that arises from the existing research available today; lower socioeconomic status is linked to lower reading and writing ability in school-aged children.

The purpose of this blog is twofold: the first being to raise awareness on the myriad challenges that this population of learners face. Additionally, this blog hopes to provide teachers and parents with resources and instructional strategies that can be used to help mitigate the effects of poverty for this population of Learners. This first installment will explore characteristics of literacy learners that are living at or below the poverty line. The information presented here, viewed through the lens of sociocultural-historical theory, can provide a framework for thinking about how to improve literacy instruction for marginalized groups (ie students living in poverty). Research has shown that taking into account students funds of knowledge in a meaningful way when planning instruction plays an important role in supporting literacy learning. The many challenges that this specific population faces can dampen their literacy engagment, making it even more imperative to utilize and build upon their existing funds of knowledge.

  (Children's Defense Fund, 2020)

After studying the graphic above, it is no wonder why, Timothy Rasinki, professor of literacy education at Kent State University, posited in 2017 that, “poverty has been shown repeatedly to be one of the most powerful correlates to reading difficulty". Before delving any further into this issue however, it is important to emphasize that the characteristics presented and discussed below are by no means representative of all families of low socioeconomic status (SES). They are characteristics that appear more frequently in families living in poverty than in families of higher socioeconomic statuses, however they cannot and should not be viewed as applying to every individual living in poverty. It is not appropriate to assume that because an individual is born into poverty and/or spends a period of his or her life impoverished, they are not capable of becoming proficient readers and writers. There are always exceptions to the rule, every student's situation is unique. There also exist other factors (discussed in more detail later) that if present can help alleviate many of the challenges brought on by lower socioeconomic status. Keeping this in mind, continue reading below to learn about five of the characteristics commonly found among school-aged children living in poverty.

Characteristic #1: Non-white

Children of color are mispropriationaly represented in the following troubling fact: a majority of the impoverished children in the United States are minority groups.  As of 2018, American Indian/Alaska Natives, Black, and Hispanic children make up 73% of this population. African American children represented the highest percentage at 32%. American Indian/Alaska native children accounted for 31%, followed by Hispanic and Pacific Islander at 25% each, white at 10%, and Asian- 9% (Children’s Defense Fund, 2020). 

Characteristic #2: Parents with low levels of education 

Nearly half of the approximately 12 million children living in poverty in 2018 had no parent who had completed high school (Children’s Defense Fund, 2020). Children who have parents with low educational levels have commonly been associated with lower achievement test scores, repeating grades, and higher rates of dropping out of high-school (National Center for Education Statistics, 2021). When comparing students with highly educated parents to students who have parents with low education levels, there are several significant differences. Studies have shown that “a harmonious parent-child relationship is...a non-negligible factor for promoting children’s reading abilities” (Chen et al., 2018). Parents with high education levels often possess more strategies to address difficulties in their relationship with their children. Parents with these abilities tend to have healthier relationships with their children, which in turn can “promote children’s academic performance” (Chen et al., 2018). Parents who have obtained higher education levels are also better positioned to help their children with homework and provide tutoring (Chen et al., 2018). 

(National Center for Education Statistics, 2021)

Characteristic #3: Homelessness

Nearly half of children’s families living in poverty in 2018 spent more than half their income on rent with no government assistance. With that much income going towards housing, it is not surprising many of these families find themselves without housing, either temporarily or on a more permanent basis. Of the half million homeless individuals living in shelters and other temporary housing during 2018 (including those living on the streets), one out of every five was a school-aged child. During the 2016-2017 school year nearly 1.5 million children enrolled in public schools in the United States were considered homeless. It goes without saying that the difficulties that face homeless students are numerous and severely impede a child’s ability to learn (Children's Defense Fund, 2020). When you don’t have a roof over your head and you must worry daily about where your next meal is coming from, literacy understandably becomes a luxury rather than a necessity.

Characteristic #4: Home Literacy Environments 

Home Literacy Environments (HLE’s) have multiple components and there is variability in its definition. Conversation, frequency of a parent (or other family member) reading to their child, the age at which parents begin reading with their children, the number of books present in the home, and frequency of library visits are some of the HLE components generally agreed upon by researchers. All of the above components have a positive effect on children’s early literacy skills and therefore a lasting impact on the child’s overall academic success. Students living in poverty commonly have HLE’s that are less than desirable and as a result are unable to partake from the myriad benefits that a robust HLE can provide (Burris, et. al, 2019). 

Characteristic #5: Restricted access to resources

Restricted access to educational materials and resources is yet another challenge this population faces. Students living in poverty have less access to educational resources (that are monetary in nature) than their peers with higher SES. Examples of educational resources include: technology, reliable internet access, computers/tablets, books, dictionaries, calculators, etc (Chen, et.al, 2018). Having a variety of reading materials present in the home is one of the biggest indicators of academic success later in life (Burris et. al, 2019). Furthermore, number of books in the home is also correlated with how often parents read to their preschool aged children (van Bergen et al., 2018) which is yet another indicator of academic success (Burris et. al, 2019). During the 2020-2021 school year the pandemic has highlighted some of these inequities due to the increased prevalence of virtual/remote learning. Many students “...lack the most basic tools for online education: no computer or an outdated one shared by multiple family members, no space suitably adaptable for uninterrupted work…” (Schwartzman, 2020). While students who lack the necessary resources for at-home learning may not be penalized when it comes to grading, the fact remains that their learning is restricted. These restrictions are likely to increase the already significant gap between them and and their higher SES peers.

In conclusion, it is evident that children living in poverty have complex needs that need to be acknowledged not only in our classrooms, but in society as a whole. Teachers, parents, and anyone wishing to advocate for our nations' youth need to be aware of the many challenges they face if there is any hope in altering our current troubling status quo. Sociocultural-historical theory, as previously mentioned, can act as our guide in relating to this student population and striving to improve their literacy learning outcomes. 

References

Burris, P. W., Phillips, B. M., & Lonigan, C. J. (2019). Examining the Relations of the Home Literacy Environments of Families of Low SES with Children’s Early Literacy Skills. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 24(2), 154–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/10824669.2019.1602473 

Chen, Q., Kong, Y., Gao, W., & Mo, L. (2018). Effects of socioeconomic Status, Parent–Child relationship, and LEARNING motivation on reading ability. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01297 

National Center for Education Statistics. (2021). Percentage of children under 18 in families living in poverty, by child's race/ethnicity and parent's highest level of educational attainment: 2018. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cce.asp. 

The Children's Defense Fund. (2020, February 19). The State of America's Children 2020. Children's Defense Fund. https://www.childrensdefense.org/the-state-of-americas-children-2020/. 

United States Census Bureau, Semega, J., Kollar, M., & Creamer, J. F., Income and Poverty in the United States: 2019 (2020). Washington , D.C.; US Government Publishing Office. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2020/demo/p60-270.pdf 

Rasinski, T. V. (2017). Readers Who Struggle: Why Many Struggle and a Modest Proposal for Improving Their Reading. The Reading Teacher, 70(5), 519–524. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1533 

Schwartzman, R. (2020). Performing pandemic pedagogy. Communication Education, 69(4), 502–517. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2020.1804602 

van Bergen, E., van Zuijen, T., Bishop, D., & de Jong, P. F. (2017). Why Are Home Literacy Environment and Children's Reading Skills Associated? What Parental Skills Reveal. Reading Research Quarterly, 52(2), 147–160. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.160